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Department of Mechanical EngineeringThe Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, China
Tsinghua University the Graduate School at Shenzhen, China
Mingyu Li
Department of Mechanical EngineeringThe Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, China
*Address all correspondence to:
1. Introduction
Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) has rapidly expanded its market in recent years; until 2019, the market volume of RFID will probably reach 3.9 billion USD globally (for those passive tags). It will replace barcodes and find a lot more applications where barcodes cannot do today.[1] RFID takes the advantages such as the high-speed scanning, miniaturized size, high reliability, high memory volume, safe, and excellent read accessibility, as compared to barcodes. However, the high materials and fabrication costs are the major bottleneck for wider applications. Currently, the cost of chip is still the major part of the overall cost of a tag, which contributes about 30% to 70% of the total cost of a tag. The rest part is the sum of the materials cost including the antenna, substrate, and that for integrating them together. Since the cost of the chip keeps dropping due to the technical development, the need for reducing the other parts now is more urgent than ever. Therefore, it becomes a challenging part nowadays for reducing the cost of antenna, which takes the highest mass weight of all electrical components.
Currently, there are several alternative fabrication methods of the RFID tag antennas. For example, there are etched/punched antennas, wound antennas, which are based on metallic foils and printed antennas, which are based on the electrically conductive adhesives (ECAs). Even though each method has its pros and cons, printed antennas are currently regarded as the most promising one, primarily due to both productivity and cost concerns. Moreover, printability renders the antenna fabrication process integrated into the whole tag manufacturing system,[2] especially suitable for mass production of the RFID tags. It will also be indispensible for manufacturing the chipless tags, which eliminates the silicon chip from the tag, not only for saving cost, but there would be other benefits such as thinner in shape and more environmentally benign. However, printed RFID tags often have a shorter life-time than the etched tags (life span of more than ten years), which causes limitations in such as passports requirements; there are also concerns about the read range, which is related to the relatively low electrical conductivity. Thus there are still a lot of rooms for improvement for the printed materials.
There are a few alternative printing techniques which are applicable for printing the antenna materials (such as gravure, screen, roll to roll, flexography, and stencil etc.), which are briefly shown in Fig. 1. Here this chapter primarily elucidates the works which are based on the (flat-bed) screen printing method, which is very representative at the stage of lab prototyping. Screen printing is a low cost printing technique which has a very long history; as firstly appeared about 2000 years ago in the Qin dynasty in China. Screen printing technique uses a woven mesh to support an ink-blocking stencil. The attached stencil forms open areas of mesh that can transfer ink or other printable materials which can be pressed through the mesh as a sharp-edged image onto a substrate. A roller or squeegee is moved across the screen stencil, forcing or pumping ink to pass through the open areas in the woven mesh. There is a wide range of screen materials which include steel, polyester, glass fiber, silk fiber, and nylon etc. They form a smooth, porous, finely woven fabric which is stretched over a wood or aluminium frame. Areas of the screen are blocked off with a non-permeable material as a stencil. The open spaces of the screen allow the ink appear on the substrate beneath the screen. Generally, screen-printing method can render the printed resolution to be about 100 microns and above, which is determined by many factors such as the selection of the material of the screen mask and the automatic control of the processing conditions. The screen mask can be conveniently prepared by the ordinary photolithography method, thus it is a very promising and competitive printing method for producing the ultralow cost RFID antennas and even tags for prototyping. Moreover, screen printing can work on a large range of substrate materials such as textiles, ceramics, woods, papers, glasses, metals, and plastics. Fig. 2A shows a worker in a label printing company in Dongguan, China, whom is working on a flat-bed screen printer. The RFID tags printed in this way is shown in Fig. 2B. There were a few layers of inks including the hot-melt adhesive layer, the ECA layer, and the ink layers which were printed onto a piece of PET film consecutively. Then the printed pattern was heat-transferred onto a piece of fabric sample, which underwent dozens of washing cycles (e.g. 40 cycles) for evaluating the reliability of the sandwiched RFID tags. [3]
As the major component for the printed RFID antenna, ECAs are composed of two major parts: one is the conductive filler, such as silver, copper, and nickel; the other is the nonconductive polymer resin, which can be epoxy, polyester, polyurethane, ceramic, and other dispersants which can fit for the printing condition and some other factors. Nevertheless, high electrical conductivity of the printed antenna material is indispensible, so that the read range performance can match most of the applications of the tag.[4] Among all available printed materials including metals, carbon, and intrinsically conductive polymers, silver is considered as the most promising one, due to its high electrical conductivity (6.2 x 105 S/cm, which is the highest among all metals), relatively low material cost, and excellent reliability in long-term uses without the concern of electrochemical etches. Silver fillers are usually ground into micron-sized flakes when they are mixed with the resin dispersant; thus the overall electrical conductance of the ECA is not only determined by the intrinsic conductivity of silver, but also by the percolation effectiveness among them.[5] To improve the percolation of the silver fillers in the ECAs for practical uses, silver flakes with the diameter ranging from 30 micron to 3 micron are usually selected, which can be conveniently fabricated by mechanical machining methods such as ball-milling etc.[6] The anisotropic morphology renders the silver fillers more easily build up associated network inside the resin dispersant so that the percolation threshold (the minimum filler content requirement for achieving ohmic conductance) of the filler can be decreased.[7] Further decreasing the size of the fillers inevitably increases the viscosity of the filler-dispersant mixture, which may cause problems during printing.
Figure 1.
A schematic comparing the printing speed and the RFID cost per tag.
Figure 2.
Photographic images showing the RFID tag incorporated high reliability hot-press labels for garments. A) A worker is screen-printing the ultralow cost ECA based antenna in his work line in a company in Dongguan, China; B) A group of labels ready for heat-transfer printing; C) Samples cotton fabric pieces with the labels heat-transferred onto them. (Upper: before washes; bottom: after washing for forty cycles.) The RFID read range performance remained the same after the heat-transfer process and the subsequent washing cycles.
There have been intensive studies about the ECAs in the last two decades,[8] majorly considered as the substitute for the Sn/Pb eutectic solders as an interconnect material in the traditional electronic packaging industry. This is not only because they have fewer troubles about environmental problem (no lead is involved), but they have lower processing temperature and more convenient processing procedures (the curing temperature of ECAs is normally lower than the melting point of the eutectic solders, i.e. 183 °C). However, a simple mixture of the conventional resin dispersant, such as bisphenol-A type of epoxy resin and silver fillers such as microflakes (at 75% by weight) can often result in the electrical resistivity of the ECA in the range of 10-4 Ω ·cm. As compared to the Sn/Pb eutectic solders, the electrical conductivity of the ECAs needs to be improved to cater for general application of electrical devices.
As a noble metal, silver suffers less from the electrochemical etching problem than many others such as copper and nickel etc. However, ECAs filled by silver flakes still exhibit a high contact resistance due to a variety of factors, including the contamination from the impurities and additives of the resin dispersant (such as the free radicals from the initiator, the organic ligands from the curing agents etc.). Moreover, silver oxide exhibits a very high electrical resistivity (i.e. about 1016 times higher than pure silver).[9] Unlike the eutectic solders, which have a much lower melting point, the melting point of silver is 962 °C, which makes it very difficult to be annealed or sintered by conventional processing conditions. Early studies majored in those methods which can improve the physical contact among the silver fillers;[10] for example, by selecting the highly contracted resins,[10] or through applying an additional hot-laminating step after curing the ECAs.[11, 12] These strategies were shown to be able to reduce the bulk electrical resistance of the printed ECA irreversibly.[13]
Figure 3.
A schematic showing the influence of the curing step of the ECAs, which is critical to the percolation of the fillers.
In recent years, Wong et al. conducted the researches on the self-assembled monolayer (SAM) protecting layers to the silver fillers. By seasoning a small quantity of the organic molecules (usually those which can form ligands with the metallic fillers) into the ECA formulations, the electrical resistivity of the ECAs can be drastically reduced.[14] The mechanism is rather complicated, which is supposed to be related to the red-ox process of the silver surface. Some of the SAM molecules exhibit a certain level of reducing property.[15, 16] There is a large range of the feasible compounds, including malonic acid etc., which can be used for this purpose.[15, 17, 18] On the other hand, Jiang et al. studied the effect of adding a certain ration of nano-sized silver particles to supplement the silver micro-flake fillers. By adding 40 wt% and 60 wt% of the nanosilver and microsilver, at 80 wt% filler content level, the electrical resistivity of a modified formulation can achieve ~5 x 10-6 Ω cm.[17] It was anticipated that the silver nanoparticles can benefit from the melting point depression effect due to the small size. Thus the silver fillers fuse with each other and build up a percolated network through ohmic contact.[19] Consequently, the electrical conductivity of the composite material approaches the lower limit of the conductive-nonconductive mixture (as shown in Fig. 3).
Yang et al. recently worked on a novel method to achieve better percolation of the silver fillers. An iodination step is applied to the silver microflakes prior to the mixing step of the ECAs, so that the electrical conductivity of the silver based ECAs can be significantly improved.[20] Silver has a strong interaction with iodine and the reaction results in the formation of silver iodide and some other compounds. Silver iodide is a semiconductive material which has indirect band-gap; the size of the silver cations is much smaller than that of iodide.[21] Silver cations can conveniently move around through the interstitial sites so as to exhibit a certain superionic conductivity.[21, 22] On the other hand, the solution-based silver microflake treatment process can eliminate the oxide layers from the silver surface.[23] After the iodination process, those iodinated regions occupy active sites such as the terraces and steps of the silver surface more selectively, and experience a subsequent ripening process,[24-27] leaving the remaining part a clean silver surface due to an electrochemical process,[26, 27] although the dynamic process still needs further investigation.
The reaction between the solid (Ag) and solute (I2) is partially determined by the diffusion function, thus the resulting iodinated surface layer exhibits a level of nonstoichiometry. This part appears in the form of nano-islands, which are distributed on the silver flake surface. For example, TEM-EDS and SEM-EDS (Fig. 4) results both suggested that the nano-islands are distributed very sparsely on top of the silver flakes, which suggests that under optimum conditions for the best conductivity (i.e., when filled with A3) and there are excess amount of silver inside the nano-islands. The excess silver can actively involve in the charge transfer process and facilitates the reconstruction of the silver surfaces.[21]
As shown in Fig. 5A, four groups of samples were analyzed by TOF-SIMS: (1) bare silver wafer, (2) sparsely covered by the nano-islands (1: Ag : I = 100 : 0.2) (resembling to the surface of A3), (3) moderately covered by the nano-islands( 2: Ag : I = 100 : 0.4) (resembling to the surface of A9), (4) fully iodinated surface (3: Ag : I = 100 : 20), respectively. The sum of the relative peak intensities of 107Ag2OH+ and 107Ag2O+ over that of the silver base peak (107Ag+) is used as the index to demonstrate the overall oxidation level of the surface. After experiencing the curing and purging processes, the surface oxidation level of the unmodified bare silver sputtered wafer samples increased 15.5%, which suggests the oxidation of the silver surface in the curing process in the absence of Ag/AgI nanoclusters. While the surface oxidation level of the modified silver decreased 60.4% in condition 1, and 54.3% condition 2, respectively. This is direct evidence that the Ag/AgI nanoclusters on the silver surface prevented the silver metal surface from oxidation in curing process. But on the sample which was fully iodinated (condition 3), the curing process incurred an increase of the total oxidation level. Since the ratio of (107Ag2OH+ + 107Ag2O+)/107Ag+ is an index of the overall oxidation level of the sample surface, it appears that the less the nanoclusters covering the surface, the more fragment signals from the exposed silver metal surface were collected. For those samples with low and medium coverage levels of nanoclusters (condition 1 and 2), after curing, the overall oxidation levels were lowered by 60% and 54%, respectively. Considering the surfaces of these two samples were partially covered by the nanoclusters, after the curing process, the oxidation of the silver surface (except for the nanoclusters) was greatly inhibited. It suggests that during the curing process, the nanoclusters influence oxygen adsorption on the silver surface and recover the part of the oxidized surface. This phenomenon may be attributed to excess amount of silver in the nanoclusters, which exhibit stronger reducing property than the bulk silver substrate.[28, 29]
Fig. 5B demonstrates the situation of the silver surface when it is saturated by iodine treatment (Ag : I = 100 : 20). We tentatively partitioned the depth into two regions to facilitate the study of this spectrum: The left side illustrates the region of the nano-islands and the right side the region of the silver metal. In Fig. 5B, this ratio (107AgIO-/107Ag-) decreases with the sputtered depth, showing that the deeper the sputtering the stronger the collected substrate signals (i.e. 107Ag-). After curing, this ratio (107AgIO-/107Ag-) increased at the sample surface which is about several nanometers in depth. For example, at the depth of ~7 nm, it is 1.1 times higher than the ratio of the sample before cure, showing that the nano-islands are further oxidized after cure. This is quite different from the TOF-SIMS analysis on a control sample of pure silver iodide crystalline powder (Aldrich, [7783-96-2], 99.999%), which shows negligible 107AgIO- peak intensity (ratio AgIO-/Ag-= 6.3 ± 0.88%). As an unstable and naturally rare substance, the observation of a large quantity of silver hyperiodite (107AgIO-) anions in the TOF-SIMS spectra indicates that in the nanocluster regions a large amount of oxygen incorporates into the Ag/AgI nano-islands.[24, 26, 28-30] Comparison of the spectra before and after the mimic curing process demonstrates that the nano-islands are reactive to ambient oxygen and the curing process can accelerate the oxidation process. The inter-conversion between AgI and AgIOx (x = 1, 3) species has been demonstrated to be a complicated charge transfer and oxidation process which is related to many factors.[31, 32] The redistribution of the silver surface species could alter the path of oxidation of the silver surface, which may play a key role in reducing the contact resistance of the silver microflake network in the ECAs. Both the concentration and amount of iodine are crucial factors in determining the coverage and morphology of the nano-islands on the silver surface. The experimental results suggested that the coverage of these nonstoichiometric nano-islands plays a key role in modulating the surface property of silver.
The ECA samples filled with A3 showed the highest electrical conductivity among all listed conditions e.g., A1, A4, A5, A6, and A9, etc., as shown in Fig. 6 (this figure only shows the resistivity data of the ECA samples lower than 10-3 Ω·cm). The A3 filled ECA has a volume resistivity of 5.92 x 10-5 Ω·cm with a silver filler content of 40 wt% (6.5 v/v%). The volume resistivity increased to 4.81 x 10-4 Ω cm when the silver filler content decreased to 27.5 wt% (3.8 v/v%). Further reduction of the filler content resulted in higher and unstable resistivity. For example, the resistivity of the ECA filled with 70 wt% of A1 is only 1.51 x 10-4 Ω·cm (not shown in this figure), and filled with 60 wt% of A5 is only 2.99 x 10-4 Ω·cm. While the resistivity of the ECA filled with 70 wt% of A3 is 6.90 x 10-6 Ω cm, and filled with 60 wt% of A3 is 1.13 x 10-5 Ω·cm. When further decreasing the content of A3 in the ECAs to be lower than 27.5 wt%, i.e., 27 wt%, 26 wt%, 25 wt% etc., from the SEM analysis of the cross sections, sedimentations of the fillers were observed, which is due to the mismatch of the density between silver micro-flake and the epoxy resin. These sedimentations denote that when the silver filler content is lower than 27 wt%, the silver fillers can not form an associated network, which is crucial for electrical percolations. Even though this sedimentation effect may have problems in omnidirectional percolation; experimental evaluations suggest that the ultralow filler content ECAs all exhibit excellent 2D electrical conductivity in the form of printed thin film resistors.
A) SEM images of the iodinated silver micro-flake sample (left) and original bare silver micro-flake sample (right) (scale bar = 500 nm); B) A photographic image of a piece of UHF RFID tag using the A3-filled ECA as the antenna material. (A3, A4, and A5 are those silver fillers underwent different iodination conditions) C) The volume resistivity data of the modified ECAs with selected iodination conditions and a control bare silver-filled ECA (containing 75 wt% of silver filler). The partition lines drawn here is for comparing the resistivity of the modified ECAs versus the control silver adhesives (olive line) and silver metal (red line). (*This series of data of A3 filled ECAs are based on Novolac type epoxy resin to adjust the viscosity at low filler content.) A4: Ag : I = 0.5 : 100; A5: Ag : I = 1 : 100; D) Read range testing result of the RFID tags. Turn on power measurement on the A3 filled ECA RFID tag samples (tag 1, 2, 3) and the control samples (ctrl 1, 2, 3, 4). Except for tag2 and tag3, conformance was found when measuring all other tag samples. An EPCglobal Ultrahigh Frequency Class 1 Generation 2 RFID strap (Alien Technology Inc.) was adhered to the center of each tag antenna and the measurement was in a UHF RFID system (CSL CS461) in an anechoic chamber with a fixed reader-to-tag distance of 1 meter. Inset: A photographic image showing the turn-on power test.
Figure 7.
Designed geometry of RFID tag antenna based on the ECA sample with 30 wt% silver.
3. Recent progress in the environmentally benign dispersants
Besides the electrical conductivity, there are also some other considerations which determine the overall performance of the ECAs. For example, the materials involved in the printed RFID must be safe to human health and environmentally benign. This issue is especially critical to the area of food packaging and logistics at item-level. Li et al. evaluated the performance of some biocompatible curing agents to substitute the toxic curing agents for epoxy resins.[33, 34] However, the use of conventional bisphenol-A type of epoxy resin still faces lots of environmental and health problems. Yang et al. recently investigated the blocked aliphatic polyurethane (PU) as the dispersant material for preparing the ECAs for the RFID application. Two types of the methyl ethyl ketone oxime (MEKO) -blocked polyurethane prepolymers were used as they have been evaluated by the European Food Safety Authority as a safe material for food can coatings recently.[35] Moreover, as the -NCO group of the resin is blocked, the ECAs exhibit a long shelf-life than the unblocked resins. On the other hand, their moderate viscosity (1000 cPa·s to 3000 cPa·s, dependent on the amount of the silver filler content) is suitable for general screen-printing processes. Bayermaterialscience Desmodur BL 4265 SN is a kind of MEKO blocked isophorone diisocyanate (IPDI) trimer (#1) while Desmodur BL 3175 SN is a kind of MEKO blocked hexamethylene diisocyanate (HDI) trimer (#2). Both of them can couple with polyols to form low viscosity, transparent, long shelf-life paste for preparing light-stable colorless flexible, colorfast and weather-stable stoving coatings. These blocked polyurethane prepolymers are stable at room temperature when being mixed with the polyol hardener and catalyst. After mixing the dispersant with silver microflakes, the resulting ECA paste were screen-printed to PET films and cured. The structure of the blocked polyurethane prepolymers is demonstrated in scheme 1.
Figure 8.
Structure of the blocked polyurethane prepolymers #1 and #2: (Copyright @ 2011 Springer Publishing House)
Figure 9.
Resistivity of the printed resistor of the ECAs (#1 and #2) with different silver filler contents. (Copyright @ 2011 Springer Publishing House)
Fig. 8 illustrates the electrical resistivity of the ECA antenna samples containing different silver contents (from 30 wt% to 75 wt%), which displays a series of optional conditions for the aimed cost-effectiveness. Here we can observe that with different content of silver fillers, the electrical resistivity of the ECAs varies in a range from about 2 x 10-5 Ω·cm to 2 x 10-3 Ω·cm. [3] When the silver content is lowered down to 40% and 30%, we observed that the resistivity reaches a plateau. This chart suggests that the conductivity of the PU based ECAs is comparable to those ECAs based on bisphenol-A epoxy, thus they are useful to general applications.
Fig. 9A and 9B show the changes of resistivity versus the aging time in a TERCHY MHU-150L humidity chamber (85°C/85%RH) for up to 720 hours of the two series of ECA samples. From these figures, we can observe that after the aging test, most of the electrical resistances are even lower than those before aging. For the ECA samples with relatively low filler content (30% and 40% of the filler content), the resistance even dropped about 20%. For the other samples, the variation of the resistance value is smaller than 10%, which suggest that these PU based ECAs having superior reliability up to 720 hours in their electrical conductivity.
From the SEM analysis (Fig. 11) of the cross sections of the ECA samples, we can observe that disregarding the variation of the silver content (e.g. from 30 wt% to 75 wt%), the silver microflakes can be homogeneously distributed in the PU dispersant. In order to evaluate the performance of the PU-dispersed ECA in high frequency applications, we conducted the read range examination of the ECA printed RFID tag antennas.
Figure 10.
Reliability analysis (85°C/85% relative humidity) of the ECAs. A) Variation of the relative resistance of the printed resistors of the ECA #1; B) variation of the relative resistance of the printed resistors of the ECA #2.. (Copyright @ 2011 Springer Publishing House)
Figure 11.
Thermal cycling analysis of the ECAs. A) Variation of the relative resistance of the printed resistors of the ECA #1; B) Variation of the relative resistance of the printed resistors of the ECA #2. (Copyright @ 2011 Springer Publishing House)
Usually, the RFID antenna is designed based on the dipole antenna which is about half wavelength in length, as demonstrated in Fig. 8. Since the passive tag where the power is obtained solely from the received electromagnetic wave, the tag antenna must match the tag circuit to maximize the transfer of power into and out of it. We selected an Alien’s Gen 2 RFID chip which has an impedance value of 30 - 110j Ω, so we designed the tag antenna with the impedance value of 30 + 110j Ω to conjugate match with the chip. In the simulation, we considered both the resistivity of the materials, surface roughness, and configuration of the antenna. Based on the simulation result, we designed a series of RFID tag antenna based on #1 and #2 series. The antenna is a 82 mm-long dipole with a short line connecting two parts, as shown in Fig. 9.[36] For example, the simulated impedance of the ECA antenna filled with 30 wt% of silver filler is 33 + 108j at 915 MHz which well matches the Alien’s RFID strap (30 - 110j). The calculated return loss values is -24 dB, which means over 99% power is transmitted to RFID chip. We found that the -10 dB power transmission bandwidth of the antenna is 60 MHz which covers the operation frequency of North American, China, and Hong Kong standards.[37] Herein we use the minimum turn-on power of the reader as the index of the RFID tag antenna performance. The reader is located one meter in distance towards the RFID tag (a piece of EPCglobal Class 1 Gen 2 RFID Chip is adhered to the center of the antenna). From the experimental result, we can observe that the minimum turn-on power of the reader is consistent with the electrical resistivity of the ECA samples, i.e. with the increment of the resistivity of the antenna, the reader needs a higher minimum turn-on power to detect the tag (Fig. 12). Therefore, using the same antenna design, we can adjust the content of silver filler in the ECA to cater to different requirement of read range. As for the real application of RFID technique, the power out-put of the reader is often fixed to a certain value. Controlling the resistivity of the ECA can probably be a convenient way to cater to the different requirement of read range requirement. Apparently that by using the low silver filler content paste the cost of RFID tags can be dramatically reduced. Meanwhile, the environmentally benign polyurethane based ECAs take the advantage in food supply chain and medical applications etc.
Figure 12.
SEM images of the cross sections of some of the ECA bulk samples. A) 30% of filler; B) 40% of filler; C) 55% of filler; D) 70% of filler; and E) 75% of filler. (Scale bar = 10 µm) (Copyright @ 2010 Springer Publishing House)
The ECA samples with different silver content were prepared, printed into pre-designed geometries and their performances such as electrical resistivity, adhesion strength to PET film, and high frequency performances were studied. From the experimental results, the ECA with the silver content as low as 47.5% still maintain an acceptable conductivity (6.56 x 10-4 and 5.96 x 10-4 Ω·cm), which is efficient for high frequency applications. This suggests that by adjusting the silver content, the electrical and mechanical properties of the ECAs can be modulated. On the other hand, we observed that the silver content at 70% showed similar conductivity to those with higher silver content, which suggests that the silver content at this level reaches the summit of the conductivity. In a 720-hour 85 °C/85%RH aging test, we observed that in a large range of silver contents from 30% to 75%, the electrical resistivity of this PU based ECA was very stable. They also passed the 720-hour thermal cycling test for electrical conductivity. After all, blocked-PU based resin has been demonstrated efficient for fabricating the low-cost and flexible ECAs, which has also been demonstrated feasible in the ultra high frequency RFID tag antennas.
PU displays various characters such as adjustable mechanical properties, shape-memory property, and excellent stability.[38-40] Moreover, many PU-based resins are biocompatible and can be obtained from renewable resources such as from vegetable oils.[41-43] The water-based PU resins exhibit even more advantages since there is no organic small molecule involved or released during the printing process. Recently, Yang et al. investigated the feasibility of applying the water-based PU resin as the dispersant material for the ECAs. Here cycloaliphatic PU is prepared in the emulsion based reaction. As shown in Scheme 2, the water-borne PU dispersant is prepared mainly in four steps: 1. polyether polyol (here is polytetrahydrofuran 2000), dihydroxylmethylpropionic acid (DHPA), and isophorone diisocyanate (IPDI) are mixed together for preparing the prepolymer; 2. chain extender (butylene diol) is added until the chain propagation is terminated; 3. triethylamine (TEA) is added to neutralize the system; 4. water is added dropwise so that the PU is transferred into aqueous solution. Finally, the organic solvent and the unreacted chemicals are removed by vacuum. The resulting PU emulsion is translucent bluish with long shelf-life and stable rheological property. The structure of the PU resin prepared in this way was confirmed by FT-IR spectrum. As shown in Fig. 13, the FT-IR spectrum of the dried film of the as-prepared water-borne PU is investigated. The peaks at 2933 cm-1 and 2854 cm-1 confirm the existence of the –CH2- group, the 1698 cm-1 the carbonyl group, and 1239 cm-1 and 1108 cm-1 confirm the C-O vibrations. The as-prepared PU has excellent thermal stability, which was confirmed by using thermalgravimetric analysis (TGA). The temperature of the sample was ramped from room temperature to 600 °C with the speed of 20 °C/min in the air (Fig. 14). The sample lost less than 10% weight before it reached 250 °C. Further raising the temperature resulted in the total decomposition, until the temperature reached 430 °C. This result suggests that the PU dispersant is suitable for the general solder reflow process as well when it is applied in the traditional packaging process.
The WBECAs were prepared by mixing the PU resin and a certain portion of the modified silver microflakes together by using a THINKY ARE250 mixer.[20] By adjusting the ratio between the two components we are able to achieve an optimum between the mechanical strength and electrical conductivity. NaBH4 has been considered as a very powerful reducing agent for protecting many metals from oxidations. For example, addition of small amount of NaBH4 has been demonstrated effective for improving the percolation among the copper and nickel powders via an in-situ reducing process for ink-jet printing conductive lines.[44] Here we tentatively added in 0.5% (by weight) and 1% (by weight) of NaBH4 (vs.Ag) into the WBECAs, as an agent for preventing the oxidation issue during the processing steps. The cross section images of the samples were studied on both transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). As shown in Fig. 15, the electrical resistivity of the printed resistor which is based on different silver content and NaBH4 treatment condition are listed in Table 1. From Fig. 15, we can observe that the addition of NaBH4 can effectively reduce the electrical resistivity of the printed resistors which were prepared by using the WBECAs. The improvement of the resistivity is about one order of magnitude.
Figure 13.
Preparation route of the water-borne PU dispersant.
The measurement of the variation of electrical resistivity of the printed ECA samples were conducted in a TERCHY MHU-150L humidity chamber (85°C/85% relative humidity) for 60 days for the temperature-humidity testing (THT) (Fig. 16). As shown in Fig. 16, we can observe a trend of decrease of the electrical resistivity over the period of time. The reasons of the decrement of the electrical resistivity of all the samples are related to the following points: 1) the water-borne PU dispersant is intrinsically an emulsion which contains both the hydrophilic part and the hydrophobic part; water molecules trapped in the interstitial sites are eliminated during the aging process or thermal curing process which renders shrinkage of the total size; 2) since the glass transition temperature (Tg) of the water-borne PU dispersant is much lower than room temperature (~-20 °C), the creeping of the hydrophobic polymer chain enhances the phase separation of the hydrophobic/hydrophilic regions, which results in a stronger interaction among the polymer chains by hydrophobic interaction and hydrogen bond as well. These two factors take effect both in the thermal curing process (if there is any) and the aging process as well. Thus we observed kind of variation of the electrical resistivity. After all, we did not observe any increase of the electrical resistivity of all samples after the aging test, which suggests sufficient reliability for real applications. Since many rubbery substrates are very sensitive to the high temperature (due to their extremely low Tg), they can be used as the stretchable circuit boards and fabricated at room temperature by using the WBECAs as the circuits and interconnects.
Figure 14.
Minimum turn-on power of the reader in detecting the RFID tags with the antenna printed using the ECAs. (Copyright @ 2011 Springer Publishing House)
The relation between the silver content and the tensile property of the WBECA thin film samples were investigated on an Advanced Rheometric Expansion System (ARES) (TA instruments, USA). The specimens were prepared on a piece of smooth low density polyethylene (LDPE) substrate, so that they could form an even and flat thin film. When they were naturally dried, they were peeled off carefully from the substrate and then cut into small strips with the dimension near 40 x 3 x 0.1 mm3 (each was accurately confirmed by a caliper), and mounted onto ARES by a thin film tensile test fixture. The measurement was conducted at 25 °C with a 2000 g∙cm transducer. The extension speed was 0.2 mm/s in a strain-controlled mode. As shown in Table 1, we can observe that the Young’s modulus of all the three samples does not change significantly along with the different silver content level. This suggests that the addition of NaBH4 does not have significant influence to the mechanical strength of the WBECA samples.
Compared to the other traditional dispersants for the ECAs, such as epoxy, polyester, and polyacrylates etc., water-borne PU as the resin dispersant displays a few advantages: 1. the resin is dispersed in water, thus the printing process does not involves toxic volatile materials and the residues can be conveniently removed by water; 2. the PU materials can be prepared from a large variety of sources such as from plants, thus PU has better environmental benign character and adjustable mechanical strength; 3. the urethane bond is relatively strong, thus the materials have a high reliability for general electronic packaging applications; 4. the curing step for the ECAs can take place at even room temperature (of course a higher temperature may help accelerate the process) thus it saves energy; 5. the WBECAs have adjustable rheological property thus they are suitable for many types of printing process such as screen printing, gravure printing, and roll-to-roll printing etc.
In summary, by sensitizing a small amount of NaBH4, the electrical conductivity of the WBECAs can be effectively improved of about one order of magnitude; the percolation threshold of the silver filler is reduced as well. The lowest electrical resistivity ever measured in this material was in the order of 10-5 Ω cm. The mechanical strength of the thin films of the free-standing WBECAs improves along with the PU dispersant amount. These WBECAs can be applied in the general printing process for general applications as ordinary ECAs can do, while they display many unique properties, such as amenity for processing, environmentally benign, excellent shelf-life and reliability in long-term storage and applications, water-proof, and the mechanical property can be adjusted by choosing different prepolymers.
Figure 15.
FT-IR spectrum of the dried film of the water-borne PU.
Figure 16.
TGA analysis of the PU dried film. The sample was ramped from 25 °C to 600 °C in the air.
Figure 17.
Volume resistivity of the WBECAs (80 wt% of silver) versus different addition amount of NaBH4. (A) no NaBH4 addition; (B) 0.5% of NaBH4; (C) 1% of NaBH4.
Figure 18.
Thermal-humidity reliability of the WBECAs versus aging time. (A) no NaBH4 addition; (B) 0.5% of NaBH4; (C) 1% of NaBH4.
Figure 19.
A table showing the Young's modulus of the WBECA thin film samples including the untreated, 0.5% of NaBH4 treated, and 1% of NaBH4 treated ones.
In summary, the authors introduced the recent progress of the silver microflake-filled ECAs as a candidate for the RFID tag antenna applications. ECAs exhibit many advantages such as printability and low-temperature processability as compared to the conventional antenna preparation methods, which render them significant in both the conventional Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) based and the organic all-printed ones. However, their electrical, mechanical, and environmental performances are still undergoing intensive investigations. In this chapter, the authors gave several simple introductions about how to improve the electrical conductivity of the ECAs and introduced some PU based resin dispersants for ECAs. By adjusting the balance between the electrical conductivity and the materials cost, ECAs could find a larger market in both far field and near field applications. Any significant advancement of the materials would enhance the widespread uses of the tags, which is benefit from both the lower cost and higher performances. The examples given in this article have their merit and limitations; we expect that they may give elicitations for developing techniques for manufacturing low-cost, flexible ubiquitous information terminals.
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Written By
Mingyu Li and Cheng Yang
Submitted: October 14th, 2010Reviewed: April 3rd, 2011Published: July 20th, 2011
By Luca Catarinucci, Riccardo Colella, Mario De Blasi...
3130 downloads
Figure 1.
A schematic comparing the printing speed and the RFID cost per tag.
Figure 2.
Photographic images showing the RFID tag incorporated high reliability hot-press labels for garments. A) A worker is screen-printing the ultralow cost ECA based antenna in his work line in a company in Dongguan, China; B) A group of labels ready for heat-transfer printing; C) Samples cotton fabric pieces with the labels heat-transferred onto them. (Upper: before washes; bottom: after washing for forty cycles.) The RFID read range performance remained the same after the heat-transfer process and the subsequent washing cycles.
There have been intensive studies about the ECAs in the last two decades,[8] majorly considered as the substitute for the Sn/Pb eutectic solders as an interconnect material in the traditional electronic packaging industry. This is not only because they have fewer troubles about environmental problem (no lead is involved), but they have lower processing temperature and more convenient processing procedures (the curing temperature of ECAs is normally lower than the melting point of the eutectic solders, i.e. 183 °C). However, a simple mixture of the conventional resin dispersant, such as bisphenol-A type of epoxy resin and silver fillers such as microflakes (at 75% by weight) can often result in the electrical resistivity of the ECA in the range of 10-4 Ω ·cm. As compared to the Sn/Pb eutectic solders, the electrical conductivity of the ECAs needs to be improved to cater for general application of electrical devices.
As a noble metal, silver suffers less from the electrochemical etching problem than many others such as copper and nickel etc. However, ECAs filled by silver flakes still exhibit a high contact resistance due to a variety of factors, including the contamination from the impurities and additives of the resin dispersant (such as the free radicals from the initiator, the organic ligands from the curing agents etc.). Moreover, silver oxide exhibits a very high electrical resistivity (i.e. about 1016 times higher than pure silver).[9] Unlike the eutectic solders, which have a much lower melting point, the melting point of silver is 962 °C, which makes it very difficult to be annealed or sintered by conventional processing conditions. Early studies majored in those methods which can improve the physical contact among the silver fillers;[10] for example, by selecting the highly contracted resins,[10] or through applying an additional hot-laminating step after curing the ECAs.[11, 12] These strategies were shown to be able to reduce the bulk electrical resistance of the printed ECA irreversibly.[13]
Figure 3.
A schematic showing the influence of the curing step of the ECAs, which is critical to the percolation of the fillers.
2. Recent progress of silver filler modifications
In recent years, Wong et al. conducted the researches on the self-assembled monolayer (SAM) protecting layers to the silver fillers. By seasoning a small quantity of the organic molecules (usually those which can form ligands with the metallic fillers) into the ECA formulations, the electrical resistivity of the ECAs can be drastically reduced.[14] The mechanism is rather complicated, which is supposed to be related to the red-ox process of the silver surface. Some of the SAM molecules exhibit a certain level of reducing property.[15, 16] There is a large range of the feasible compounds, including malonic acid etc., which can be used for this purpose.[15, 17, 18] On the other hand, Jiang et al. studied the effect of adding a certain ration of nano-sized silver particles to supplement the silver micro-flake fillers. By adding 40 wt% and 60 wt% of the nanosilver and microsilver, at 80 wt% filler content level, the electrical resistivity of a modified formulation can achieve ~5 x 10-6 Ω cm.[17] It was anticipated that the silver nanoparticles can benefit from the melting point depression effect due to the small size. Thus the silver fillers fuse with each other and build up a percolated network through ohmic contact.[19] Consequently, the electrical conductivity of the composite material approaches the lower limit of the conductive-nonconductive mixture (as shown in Fig. 3).
Yang et al. recently worked on a novel method to achieve better percolation of the silver fillers. An iodination step is applied to the silver microflakes prior to the mixing step of the ECAs, so that the electrical conductivity of the silver based ECAs can be significantly improved.[20] Silver has a strong interaction with iodine and the reaction results in the formation of silver iodide and some other compounds. Silver iodide is a semiconductive material which has indirect band-gap; the size of the silver cations is much smaller than that of iodide.[21] Silver cations can conveniently move around through the interstitial sites so as to exhibit a certain superionic conductivity.[21, 22] On the other hand, the solution-based silver microflake treatment process can eliminate the oxide layers from the silver surface.[23] After the iodination process, those iodinated regions occupy active sites such as the terraces and steps of the silver surface more selectively, and experience a subsequent ripening process,[24-27] leaving the remaining part a clean silver surface due to an electrochemical process,[26, 27] although the dynamic process still needs further investigation.
The reaction between the solid (Ag) and solute (I2) is partially determined by the diffusion function, thus the resulting iodinated surface layer exhibits a level of nonstoichiometry. This part appears in the form of nano-islands, which are distributed on the silver flake surface. For example, TEM-EDS and SEM-EDS (Fig. 4) results both suggested that the nano-islands are distributed very sparsely on top of the silver flakes, which suggests that under optimum conditions for the best conductivity (i.e., when filled with A3) and there are excess amount of silver inside the nano-islands. The excess silver can actively involve in the charge transfer process and facilitates the reconstruction of the silver surfaces.[21]
As shown in Fig. 5A, four groups of samples were analyzed by TOF-SIMS: (1) bare silver wafer, (2) sparsely covered by the nano-islands (1: Ag : I = 100 : 0.2) (resembling to the surface of A3), (3) moderately covered by the nano-islands( 2: Ag : I = 100 : 0.4) (resembling to the surface of A9), (4) fully iodinated surface (3: Ag : I = 100 : 20), respectively. The sum of the relative peak intensities of 107Ag2OH+ and 107Ag2O+ over that of the silver base peak (107Ag+) is used as the index to demonstrate the overall oxidation level of the surface. After experiencing the curing and purging processes, the surface oxidation level of the unmodified bare silver sputtered wafer samples increased 15.5%, which suggests the oxidation of the silver surface in the curing process in the absence of Ag/AgI nanoclusters. While the surface oxidation level of the modified silver decreased 60.4% in condition 1, and 54.3% condition 2, respectively. This is direct evidence that the Ag/AgI nanoclusters on the silver surface prevented the silver metal surface from oxidation in curing process. But on the sample which was fully iodinated (condition 3), the curing process incurred an increase of the total oxidation level. Since the ratio of (107Ag2OH+ + 107Ag2O+)/107Ag+ is an index of the overall oxidation level of the sample surface, it appears that the less the nanoclusters covering the surface, the more fragment signals from the exposed silver metal surface were collected. For those samples with low and medium coverage levels of nanoclusters (condition 1 and 2), after curing, the overall oxidation levels were lowered by 60% and 54%, respectively. Considering the surfaces of these two samples were partially covered by the nanoclusters, after the curing process, the oxidation of the silver surface (except for the nanoclusters) was greatly inhibited. It suggests that during the curing process, the nanoclusters influence oxygen adsorption on the silver surface and recover the part of the oxidized surface. This phenomenon may be attributed to excess amount of silver in the nanoclusters, which exhibit stronger reducing property than the bulk silver substrate.[28, 29]
Fig. 5B demonstrates the situation of the silver surface when it is saturated by iodine treatment (Ag : I = 100 : 20). We tentatively partitioned the depth into two regions to facilitate the study of this spectrum: The left side illustrates the region of the nano-islands and the right side the region of the silver metal. In Fig. 5B, this ratio (107AgIO-/107Ag-) decreases with the sputtered depth, showing that the deeper the sputtering the stronger the collected substrate signals (i.e. 107Ag-). After curing, this ratio (107AgIO-/107Ag-) increased at the sample surface which is about several nanometers in depth. For example, at the depth of ~7 nm, it is 1.1 times higher than the ratio of the sample before cure, showing that the nano-islands are further oxidized after cure. This is quite different from the TOF-SIMS analysis on a control sample of pure silver iodide crystalline powder (Aldrich, [7783-96-2], 99.999%), which shows negligible 107AgIO- peak intensity (ratio AgIO-/Ag- = 6.3 ± 0.88%). As an unstable and naturally rare substance, the observation of a large quantity of silver hyperiodite (107AgIO-) anions in the TOF-SIMS spectra indicates that in the nanocluster regions a large amount of oxygen incorporates into the Ag/AgI nano-islands.[24, 26, 28-30] Comparison of the spectra before and after the mimic curing process demonstrates that the nano-islands are reactive to ambient oxygen and the curing process can accelerate the oxidation process. The inter-conversion between AgI and AgIOx (x = 1, 3) species has been demonstrated to be a complicated charge transfer and oxidation process which is related to many factors.[31, 32] The redistribution of the silver surface species could alter the path of oxidation of the silver surface, which may play a key role in reducing the contact resistance of the silver microflake network in the ECAs. Both the concentration and amount of iodine are crucial factors in determining the coverage and morphology of the nano-islands on the silver surface. The experimental results suggested that the coverage of these nonstoichiometric nano-islands plays a key role in modulating the surface property of silver.
The ECA samples filled with A3 showed the highest electrical conductivity among all listed conditions e.g., A1, A4, A5, A6, and A9, etc., as shown in Fig. 6 (this figure only shows the resistivity data of the ECA samples lower than 10-3 Ω·cm). The A3 filled ECA has a volume resistivity of 5.92 x 10-5 Ω·cm with a silver filler content of 40 wt% (6.5 v/v%). The volume resistivity increased to 4.81 x 10-4 Ω cm when the silver filler content decreased to 27.5 wt% (3.8 v/v%). Further reduction of the filler content resulted in higher and unstable resistivity. For example, the resistivity of the ECA filled with 70 wt% of A1 is only 1.51 x 10-4 Ω·cm (not shown in this figure), and filled with 60 wt% of A5 is only 2.99 x 10-4 Ω·cm. While the resistivity of the ECA filled with 70 wt% of A3 is 6.90 x 10-6 Ω cm, and filled with 60 wt% of A3 is 1.13 x 10-5 Ω·cm. When further decreasing the content of A3 in the ECAs to be lower than 27.5 wt%, i.e., 27 wt%, 26 wt%, 25 wt% etc., from the SEM analysis of the cross sections, sedimentations of the fillers were observed, which is due to the mismatch of the density between silver micro-flake and the epoxy resin. These sedimentations denote that when the silver filler content is lower than 27 wt%, the silver fillers can not form an associated network, which is crucial for electrical percolations. Even though this sedimentation effect may have problems in omnidirectional percolation; experimental evaluations suggest that the ultralow filler content ECAs all exhibit excellent 2D electrical conductivity in the form of printed thin film resistors.
A) SEM images of the iodinated silver micro-flake sample (left) and original bare silver micro-flake sample (right) (scale bar = 500 nm); B) A photographic image of a piece of UHF RFID tag using the A3-filled ECA as the antenna material. (A3, A4, and A5 are those silver fillers underwent different iodination conditions) C) The volume resistivity data of the modified ECAs with selected iodination conditions and a control bare silver-filled ECA (containing 75 wt% of silver filler). The partition lines drawn here is for comparing the resistivity of the modified ECAs versus the control silver adhesives (olive line) and silver metal (red line). (*This series of data of A3 filled ECAs are based on Novolac type epoxy resin to adjust the viscosity at low filler content.) A4: Ag : I = 0.5 : 100; A5: Ag : I = 1 : 100; D) Read range testing result of the RFID tags. Turn on power measurement on the A3 filled ECA RFID tag samples (tag 1, 2, 3) and the control samples (ctrl 1, 2, 3, 4). Except for tag2 and tag3, conformance was found when measuring all other tag samples. An EPCglobal Ultrahigh Frequency Class 1 Generation 2 RFID strap (Alien Technology Inc.) was adhered to the center of each tag antenna and the measurement was in a UHF RFID system (CSL CS461) in an anechoic chamber with a fixed reader-to-tag distance of 1 meter. Inset: A photographic image showing the turn-on power test.
Figure 7.
Designed geometry of RFID tag antenna based on the ECA sample with 30 wt% silver.
3. Recent progress in the environmentally benign dispersants
Besides the electrical conductivity, there are also some other considerations which determine the overall performance of the ECAs. For example, the materials involved in the printed RFID must be safe to human health and environmentally benign. This issue is especially critical to the area of food packaging and logistics at item-level. Li et al. evaluated the performance of some biocompatible curing agents to substitute the toxic curing agents for epoxy resins.[33, 34] However, the use of conventional bisphenol-A type of epoxy resin still faces lots of environmental and health problems. Yang et al. recently investigated the blocked aliphatic polyurethane (PU) as the dispersant material for preparing the ECAs for the RFID application. Two types of the methyl ethyl ketone oxime (MEKO) -blocked polyurethane prepolymers were used as they have been evaluated by the European Food Safety Authority as a safe material for food can coatings recently.[35] Moreover, as the -NCO group of the resin is blocked, the ECAs exhibit a long shelf-life than the unblocked resins. On the other hand, their moderate viscosity (1000 cPa·s to 3000 cPa·s, dependent on the amount of the silver filler content) is suitable for general screen-printing processes. Bayermaterialscience Desmodur BL 4265 SN is a kind of MEKO blocked isophorone diisocyanate (IPDI) trimer (#1) while Desmodur BL 3175 SN is a kind of MEKO blocked hexamethylene diisocyanate (HDI) trimer (#2). Both of them can couple with polyols to form low viscosity, transparent, long shelf-life paste for preparing light-stable colorless flexible, colorfast and weather-stable stoving coatings. These blocked polyurethane prepolymers are stable at room temperature when being mixed with the polyol hardener and catalyst. After mixing the dispersant with silver microflakes, the resulting ECA paste were screen-printed to PET films and cured. The structure of the blocked polyurethane prepolymers is demonstrated in scheme 1.
Figure 8.
Structure of the blocked polyurethane prepolymers #1 and #2: (Copyright @ 2011 Springer Publishing House)
Figure 9.
Resistivity of the printed resistor of the ECAs (#1 and #2) with different silver filler contents. (Copyright @ 2011 Springer Publishing House)
Fig. 8 illustrates the electrical resistivity of the ECA antenna samples containing different silver contents (from 30 wt% to 75 wt%), which displays a series of optional conditions for the aimed cost-effectiveness. Here we can observe that with different content of silver fillers, the electrical resistivity of the ECAs varies in a range from about 2 x 10-5 Ω·cm to 2 x 10-3 Ω·cm. [3] When the silver content is lowered down to 40% and 30%, we observed that the resistivity reaches a plateau. This chart suggests that the conductivity of the PU based ECAs is comparable to those ECAs based on bisphenol-A epoxy, thus they are useful to general applications.
Fig. 9A and 9B show the changes of resistivity versus the aging time in a TERCHY MHU-150L humidity chamber (85°C/85%RH) for up to 720 hours of the two series of ECA samples. From these figures, we can observe that after the aging test, most of the electrical resistances are even lower than those before aging. For the ECA samples with relatively low filler content (30% and 40% of the filler content), the resistance even dropped about 20%. For the other samples, the variation of the resistance value is smaller than 10%, which suggest that these PU based ECAs having superior reliability up to 720 hours in their electrical conductivity.
From the SEM analysis (Fig. 11) of the cross sections of the ECA samples, we can observe that disregarding the variation of the silver content (e.g. from 30 wt% to 75 wt%), the silver microflakes can be homogeneously distributed in the PU dispersant. In order to evaluate the performance of the PU-dispersed ECA in high frequency applications, we conducted the read range examination of the ECA printed RFID tag antennas.
Figure 10.
Reliability analysis (85°C/85% relative humidity) of the ECAs. A) Variation of the relative resistance of the printed resistors of the ECA #1; B) variation of the relative resistance of the printed resistors of the ECA #2.. (Copyright @ 2011 Springer Publishing House)
Figure 11.
Thermal cycling analysis of the ECAs. A) Variation of the relative resistance of the printed resistors of the ECA #1; B) Variation of the relative resistance of the printed resistors of the ECA #2. (Copyright @ 2011 Springer Publishing House)
Usually, the RFID antenna is designed based on the dipole antenna which is about half wavelength in length, as demonstrated in Fig. 8. Since the passive tag where the power is obtained solely from the received electromagnetic wave, the tag antenna must match the tag circuit to maximize the transfer of power into and out of it. We selected an Alien’s Gen 2 RFID chip which has an impedance value of 30 - 110j Ω, so we designed the tag antenna with the impedance value of 30 + 110j Ω to conjugate match with the chip. In the simulation, we considered both the resistivity of the materials, surface roughness, and configuration of the antenna. Based on the simulation result, we designed a series of RFID tag antenna based on #1 and #2 series. The antenna is a 82 mm-long dipole with a short line connecting two parts, as shown in Fig. 9.[36] For example, the simulated impedance of the ECA antenna filled with 30 wt% of silver filler is 33 + 108j at 915 MHz which well matches the Alien’s RFID strap (30 - 110j). The calculated return loss values is -24 dB, which means over 99% power is transmitted to RFID chip. We found that the -10 dB power transmission bandwidth of the antenna is 60 MHz which covers the operation frequency of North American, China, and Hong Kong standards.[37] Herein we use the minimum turn-on power of the reader as the index of the RFID tag antenna performance. The reader is located one meter in distance towards the RFID tag (a piece of EPCglobal Class 1 Gen 2 RFID Chip is adhered to the center of the antenna). From the experimental result, we can observe that the minimum turn-on power of the reader is consistent with the electrical resistivity of the ECA samples, i.e. with the increment of the resistivity of the antenna, the reader needs a higher minimum turn-on power to detect the tag (Fig. 12). Therefore, using the same antenna design, we can adjust the content of silver filler in the ECA to cater to different requirement of read range. As for the real application of RFID technique, the power out-put of the reader is often fixed to a certain value. Controlling the resistivity of the ECA can probably be a convenient way to cater to the different requirement of read range requirement. Apparently that by using the low silver filler content paste the cost of RFID tags can be dramatically reduced. Meanwhile, the environmentally benign polyurethane based ECAs take the advantage in food supply chain and medical applications etc.
Figure 12.
SEM images of the cross sections of some of the ECA bulk samples. A) 30% of filler; B) 40% of filler; C) 55% of filler; D) 70% of filler; and E) 75% of filler. (Scale bar = 10 µm) (Copyright @ 2010 Springer Publishing House)
The ECA samples with different silver content were prepared, printed into pre-designed geometries and their performances such as electrical resistivity, adhesion strength to PET film, and high frequency performances were studied. From the experimental results, the ECA with the silver content as low as 47.5% still maintain an acceptable conductivity (6.56 x 10-4 and 5.96 x 10-4 Ω·cm), which is efficient for high frequency applications. This suggests that by adjusting the silver content, the electrical and mechanical properties of the ECAs can be modulated. On the other hand, we observed that the silver content at 70% showed similar conductivity to those with higher silver content, which suggests that the silver content at this level reaches the summit of the conductivity. In a 720-hour 85 °C/85%RH aging test, we observed that in a large range of silver contents from 30% to 75%, the electrical resistivity of this PU based ECA was very stable. They also passed the 720-hour thermal cycling test for electrical conductivity. After all, blocked-PU based resin has been demonstrated efficient for fabricating the low-cost and flexible ECAs, which has also been demonstrated feasible in the ultra high frequency RFID tag antennas.
4. Water-based ECAs
PU displays various characters such as adjustable mechanical properties, shape-memory property, and excellent stability.[38-40] Moreover, many PU-based resins are biocompatible and can be obtained from renewable resources such as from vegetable oils.[41-43] The water-based PU resins exhibit even more advantages since there is no organic small molecule involved or released during the printing process. Recently, Yang et al. investigated the feasibility of applying the water-based PU resin as the dispersant material for the ECAs. Here cycloaliphatic PU is prepared in the emulsion based reaction. As shown in Scheme 2, the water-borne PU dispersant is prepared mainly in four steps: 1. polyether polyol (here is polytetrahydrofuran 2000), dihydroxylmethylpropionic acid (DHPA), and isophorone diisocyanate (IPDI) are mixed together for preparing the prepolymer; 2. chain extender (butylene diol) is added until the chain propagation is terminated; 3. triethylamine (TEA) is added to neutralize the system; 4. water is added dropwise so that the PU is transferred into aqueous solution. Finally, the organic solvent and the unreacted chemicals are removed by vacuum. The resulting PU emulsion is translucent bluish with long shelf-life and stable rheological property. The structure of the PU resin prepared in this way was confirmed by FT-IR spectrum. As shown in Fig. 13, the FT-IR spectrum of the dried film of the as-prepared water-borne PU is investigated. The peaks at 2933 cm-1 and 2854 cm-1 confirm the existence of the –CH2- group, the 1698 cm-1 the carbonyl group, and 1239 cm-1 and 1108 cm-1 confirm the C-O vibrations. The as-prepared PU has excellent thermal stability, which was confirmed by using thermalgravimetric analysis (TGA). The temperature of the sample was ramped from room temperature to 600 °C with the speed of 20 °C/min in the air (Fig. 14). The sample lost less than 10% weight before it reached 250 °C. Further raising the temperature resulted in the total decomposition, until the temperature reached 430 °C. This result suggests that the PU dispersant is suitable for the general solder reflow process as well when it is applied in the traditional packaging process.
The WBECAs were prepared by mixing the PU resin and a certain portion of the modified silver microflakes together by using a THINKY ARE250 mixer.[20] By adjusting the ratio between the two components we are able to achieve an optimum between the mechanical strength and electrical conductivity. NaBH4 has been considered as a very powerful reducing agent for protecting many metals from oxidations. For example, addition of small amount of NaBH4 has been demonstrated effective for improving the percolation among the copper and nickel powders via an in-situ reducing process for ink-jet printing conductive lines.[44] Here we tentatively added in 0.5% (by weight) and 1% (by weight) of NaBH4 (vs. Ag) into the WBECAs, as an agent for preventing the oxidation issue during the processing steps. The cross section images of the samples were studied on both transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). As shown in Fig. 15, the electrical resistivity of the printed resistor which is based on different silver content and NaBH4 treatment condition are listed in Table 1. From Fig. 15, we can observe that the addition of NaBH4 can effectively reduce the electrical resistivity of the printed resistors which were prepared by using the WBECAs. The improvement of the resistivity is about one order of magnitude.
Figure 13.
Preparation route of the water-borne PU dispersant.
The measurement of the variation of electrical resistivity of the printed ECA samples were conducted in a TERCHY MHU-150L humidity chamber (85°C/85% relative humidity) for 60 days for the temperature-humidity testing (THT) (Fig. 16). As shown in Fig. 16, we can observe a trend of decrease of the electrical resistivity over the period of time. The reasons of the decrement of the electrical resistivity of all the samples are related to the following points: 1) the water-borne PU dispersant is intrinsically an emulsion which contains both the hydrophilic part and the hydrophobic part; water molecules trapped in the interstitial sites are eliminated during the aging process or thermal curing process which renders shrinkage of the total size; 2) since the glass transition temperature (Tg) of the water-borne PU dispersant is much lower than room temperature (~-20 °C), the creeping of the hydrophobic polymer chain enhances the phase separation of the hydrophobic/hydrophilic regions, which results in a stronger interaction among the polymer chains by hydrophobic interaction and hydrogen bond as well. These two factors take effect both in the thermal curing process (if there is any) and the aging process as well. Thus we observed kind of variation of the electrical resistivity. After all, we did not observe any increase of the electrical resistivity of all samples after the aging test, which suggests sufficient reliability for real applications. Since many rubbery substrates are very sensitive to the high temperature (due to their extremely low Tg), they can be used as the stretchable circuit boards and fabricated at room temperature by using the WBECAs as the circuits and interconnects.
Figure 14.
Minimum turn-on power of the reader in detecting the RFID tags with the antenna printed using the ECAs. (Copyright @ 2011 Springer Publishing House)
The relation between the silver content and the tensile property of the WBECA thin film samples were investigated on an Advanced Rheometric Expansion System (ARES) (TA instruments, USA). The specimens were prepared on a piece of smooth low density polyethylene (LDPE) substrate, so that they could form an even and flat thin film. When they were naturally dried, they were peeled off carefully from the substrate and then cut into small strips with the dimension near 40 x 3 x 0.1 mm3 (each was accurately confirmed by a caliper), and mounted onto ARES by a thin film tensile test fixture. The measurement was conducted at 25 °C with a 2000 g∙cm transducer. The extension speed was 0.2 mm/s in a strain-controlled mode. As shown in Table 1, we can observe that the Young’s modulus of all the three samples does not change significantly along with the different silver content level. This suggests that the addition of NaBH4 does not have significant influence to the mechanical strength of the WBECA samples.
Compared to the other traditional dispersants for the ECAs, such as epoxy, polyester, and polyacrylates etc., water-borne PU as the resin dispersant displays a few advantages: 1. the resin is dispersed in water, thus the printing process does not involves toxic volatile materials and the residues can be conveniently removed by water; 2. the PU materials can be prepared from a large variety of sources such as from plants, thus PU has better environmental benign character and adjustable mechanical strength; 3. the urethane bond is relatively strong, thus the materials have a high reliability for general electronic packaging applications; 4. the curing step for the ECAs can take place at even room temperature (of course a higher temperature may help accelerate the process) thus it saves energy; 5. the WBECAs have adjustable rheological property thus they are suitable for many types of printing process such as screen printing, gravure printing, and roll-to-roll printing etc.
In summary, by sensitizing a small amount of NaBH4, the electrical conductivity of the WBECAs can be effectively improved of about one order of magnitude; the percolation threshold of the silver filler is reduced as well. The lowest electrical resistivity ever measured in this material was in the order of 10-5 Ω cm. The mechanical strength of the thin films of the free-standing WBECAs improves along with the PU dispersant amount. These WBECAs can be applied in the general printing process for general applications as ordinary ECAs can do, while they display many unique properties, such as amenity for processing, environmentally benign, excellent shelf-life and reliability in long-term storage and applications, water-proof, and the mechanical property can be adjusted by choosing different prepolymers.
Figure 15.
FT-IR spectrum of the dried film of the water-borne PU.
Figure 16.
TGA analysis of the PU dried film. The sample was ramped from 25 °C to 600 °C in the air.
Figure 17.
Volume resistivity of the WBECAs (80 wt% of silver) versus different addition amount of NaBH4. (A) no NaBH4 addition; (B) 0.5% of NaBH4; (C) 1% of NaBH4.
Figure 18.
Thermal-humidity reliability of the WBECAs versus aging time. (A) no NaBH4 addition; (B) 0.5% of NaBH4; (C) 1% of NaBH4.
Figure 19.
A table showing the Young\'s modulus of the WBECA thin film samples including the untreated, 0.5% of NaBH4 treated, and 1% of NaBH4 treated ones.
5. Conclusions
In summary, the authors introduced the recent progress of the silver microflake-filled ECAs as a candidate for the RFID tag antenna applications. ECAs exhibit many advantages such as printability and low-temperature processability as compared to the conventional antenna preparation methods, which render them significant in both the conventional Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) based and the organic all-printed ones. However, their electrical, mechanical, and environmental performances are still undergoing intensive investigations. In this chapter, the authors gave several simple introductions about how to improve the electrical conductivity of the ECAs and introduced some PU based resin dispersants for ECAs. By adjusting the balance between the electrical conductivity and the materials cost, ECAs could find a larger market in both far field and near field applications. Any significant advancement of the materials would enhance the widespread uses of the tags, which is benefit from both the lower cost and higher performances. The examples given in this article have their merit and limitations; we expect that they may give elicitations for developing techniques for manufacturing low-cost, flexible ubiquitous information terminals.
Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge the financial support from the Tsinghua University the Graduate School at Shenzhen.
\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/16520.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/16520.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/16520",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/16520",totalDownloads:5133,totalViews:352,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:1,impactScorePercentile:62,impactScoreQuartile:3,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"October 14th 2010",dateReviewed:"April 3rd 2011",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"July 20th 2011",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/16520",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/16520",book:{id:"190",slug:"current-trends-and-challenges-in-rfid"},signatures:"Mingyu Li and Cheng Yang",authors:[{id:"16770",title:"Prof.",name:"Mingyu",middleName:null,surname:"Li",fullName:"Mingyu Li",slug:"mingyu-li",email:"myli@hit.edu.cn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Harbin Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"25830",title:"Dr.",name:"Cheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",fullName:"Cheng Yang",slug:"cheng-yang",email:"yang.cheng@sz.tsinghua.edu.cn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Tsinghua University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Recent progress of silver filler modifications",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Recent progress in the environmentally benign dispersants",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Water-based ECAs",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'DasR.HarropP.\n\t\t\t\t\t2009 Printed, Organic & Flexible Electronics Forecasts, Players & Opportunities 20092029 , IDTechEx, ISBN/SKU #:IDT6769, March, 2009'},{id:"B2",body:'FinkenzellerK.\n\t\t\t\t\t2002 RFID-Handbuch Hanser-Verlag, 978-3-44621-278-7 München, Germany'},{id:"B3",body:'YangC.XuB.YuenM. M. F.\n\t\t\t\t\t2008\n\t\t\t\t\tUsing Novel Materials to Enhance the Efficiency of Conductive Polymer, The 58th IEEE Electronic Components and Technology Conference, 5\n\t\t\t\t\t213\n\t\t\t\t\t978-1-42442-230-2 Orlando, Florida, USA, May 27-30, 2008'},{id:"B4",body:'SyedA.DemarestK.DeavoursD. 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Department of Mechanical EngineeringThe Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, China
Tsinghua University the Graduate School at Shenzhen, China
Department of Mechanical EngineeringThe Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, China
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1. Introduction
The global production of fruits keep increasing as a result of the rise in the population demand, elevation in the living quality standard and the increase in health awareness of fresh food products especially fruits and vegetables. This is because fruits and vegetables play vital roles in healthy nutrition due to their vitamins, minerals, antioxidant content among others. According to FAOSTAT [1], within about 10 years, the production of fruits which include drupes, berries, pome fruits, melons and tomatoes increased from 2,587,570 in 2007 to 34,622,004 metric tonnes in 2017. However food production has been reported by Alexandratos and Bruinsma [2] that it should be increased by 60% in 2050. Thus the increase in production is needed in parallel with the growth of the global population. However, postharvest losses which result in the degradation of quantity and quality of the fruits after harvest constitute a serious challenge.
Though these fruits have very high nutritional values, they are highly perishable due to their high moisture content and nutritional value leading to the development of undesirable characteristics as well as issues of food safety. These fresh food products are susceptible to dehydration, mechanical injury, environmental stress, pathological breakdown and enzymatic attacks which leads to some nutritional, functional and sensorial losses and production of off flavour and also posing a level of threat in terms of possessing a level of toxicity. There is a level of reduction of the edible quality of the food products due to biochemical changes, physiological ageing and microbial infections during storage and transportation.
Therefore the gas composition greatly affects the shelf life of the products. Extension of the supply time of fruits and vegetables besides preserving their quality would have economic profits [3]. In this regard, post-harvest practices aiming to maintain the physicochemical composition during storage must be adopted.
Fruits are either climacteric or unclimacteric. The latter cannot ripen once removed from the plant but the former can ripen after being picked and produce more ethylene which makes them more susceptible to spoilage. Thus to inhibit the rate of deterioration of these fruits, these is a need to alter the gaseous environment or control it. For instance making use of packaging materials with low water vapour and oxygen permeability to reduce respiration but not too low oxygenated environment which can lead to anaerobic respiration which can also produce off-flavours.
Although MAP and CA technologies can be regarded as the most effective methods with extensive and successful applications, they are quite expensive and chemical treatments on the other hand have potential levels of toxicity. Low temperature storage might also lead to chilling injury and heat treatment also leads to nutrient losses, decreased weight, flavour and vitamin losses [4]. One novel postharvest technology to circumvent these limitations is the use of edible coating which can control and inhibit the deteriorative changes as well as increasing the shelf life of the products. Edible coating/films is a good candidate to help solve the cases of postharvest losses since it has mechanical, thermal, antimicrobial and even antioxidant properties.
Edible coating or films are biopolymers that are hugely being investigated for the packaging and preservation of food. Edible packaging materials are a type of packaging that could be eaten and have the biodegradable ability also provides a barrier against moisture, gases and solute movement. Edible coatings are usually made from biodegradable materials such as Lipid-, Protein- or Polysaccharide-based materials. This packaging material is either used via a film or using coating. The latter is usually in liquid form whiles the former usually forming a thin layer around the food product. Edible coatings can be defined as a thin layer of edible and environmentally friendly materials that could be consumed and provide a barrier to gases, microbes and moisture to food products. Application of these films is simple, eco-friendly, highly safe and low priced which makes it promising for preserving food products.
There has been several research works on the impact of edible coating on the physiological and microbial stability of some fresh produce. For instance, Li et al. [5] verifies that application of Cinnamaldehyde as an edible coating on banana showed a significant decrease in the weight loss and ripening rate of the banana. Also, application of protein isolate with organo-clay MMT on minimally processed papaya sliced also demonstrated a lower microbial growth and lower mass loss [6]. An increasing interest in edible films/coatings is an outcome of growing consumer awareness on healthy foods, and also due to negative impacts of non-biodegradable synthetic packaging materials on the environment.
Edible coatings/films helps to improve the appearance of horticultural produce by giving shine, hiding scars, suppressing decay and physiological disorder developments [7]. Edible coatings can be generally classified into three main groups; Protein-based edible coatings, Polysaccharide-based coatings and lipid-based coatings. The choice of active agents depends on the characteristics of the product and the type of polymeric matrix in the coatings. Active or functional compounds; Antioxidants, antimicrobials, nutrients, vitamins, anti-browning agents, enzymes and probiotics that could be applied into coating matrix to help preserving products quality.
2. Classes of edible coating
2.1 Coatings based on Polysaccahrides
Polysaccharides are natural polymers used extensively to produce edible coating or films. Examples of polysaccharides used in the production of these films include; Pectin, cellulose, starch, chitosan, alginates and pullulan. Polysaccharides are the basic coatings that are considered to be an effective blocker of oxygen because of its ordered structure including a hydrogen network. However, polysaccharides form a poor barrier against water vapour because of its hydrophilic nature. They are usually used to improve the shelf life of meat products, vegetables, fruitc.
2.1.1 Starch
Starch is a polysaccharide that is composed of two different molecules which are amylose which is a linear polymer and amylopectin which is a highly branched polymer. Starch is widely used in coatings for food materials since it is abundant in nature and has a low cost. Several studies have been carried out to improve physicochemical and optical properties of starch-based edible films using Aloe Vera. Coatings based on starch are odourless and colourless. They possess less oxygen permeability and have an oil-free appearance. They can make an important contribution to decrease in the respiration rate for the fresh fruits and vegetables.
2.1.2 Chitosan
Natural chitin can go through a process called deacetylation to form Chitosan which is a polysaccharide that can be used in edible coating of food materials [8]. Chitosan is mostly used in coating materials for fruits and vegetables because of its antioxidative and antimicrobial properties. It is non-toxic, biodegradable, biocompatible and microbe-resistant, chitosan is currently attracting considerable attention and its scientific testing at a large scale is in progress to explore its possible applications in different fields [9]. Chitosan are partial permeable coatings and films, which can control the interior structure by diminishing transpiration rates and retarding ripening in foods and vegetables [10].
2.1.3 Alginate
Alginate is an unbranched polysaccharide and is composed of sodium salt of alginic acid that is derived from some species of brown algae. Alginates are indigestible natural polysaccharides acquired from seaweed and have been reported to be a stabilising and thickening in the food market. It has good film forming properties as it can form gels through crosslinking with divalent cations like Ca2+. For this reason, alginate finds interesting application for coating fresh and processed food items [11].
2.1.4 Gellan gum
Gellan gum consists of repetitive units of tetrasaccharides, and it is a well-recognised biopolymer due to its functional properties, eg) good hardness, high transparency, smooth surfaces and reduced water vapour permeability.
2.2 Pullulan-based coatings
Pullulan is a polysaccharide which is usually a thickener that may form effective films. The use of pullulan edible films and coatings in combination with chitooligosaccharide which has antibacterial properties and glutathione which is also a powerful reducing agent. This makes it effective in increasing the shelf life of various food products.
2.2.1 Cellulose
Cellulose is also a linear chain polysaccharide which is a major component of plant cell wall which has a large number of intra-molecular hydrogen bonds causing its water insolubility with highly associated crystalline structure [12]. The native cellulose has very low water solubility properties and is a less suitable film forming material. However, various chemically modified forms of cellulose like carboxymethyl cellulose, methylcellulose, hydroxypropyl cellulose and hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose are quite suitable for film and coating applications.
2.2.2 Carboxymethyl cellulose
An anionic linear and long chain compound that consists of glucopyronosyl units with high molecular weight providing strength and structural integrity in edible coatings. They exhibit excellent oxygen, aroma, and oil barrier and anti-senescence properties.
2.2.3 Pectin
Pectin, main compound of plant cell walls found in middle lamella of plant cells. They are complex heteropolymers made up of D-galacturonic acid units that may present variations in composition, structure and molecular weight [13].
2.3 Protein-based coatings
Proteins generally occur in the form of globular proteins or fibrous proteins. Fibrous proteins are insoluble in water and generally play the role of a basic structural element of animal tissues, they are also soluble in aqueous solutions of salt, bases or acids and perform different activities in living systems. Various types of globular proteins such as corn zein, whey protein, wheat gluten and soy protein are involved in edible coatings/films. A dispersion or protein solution is taken into consideration to create coatings and films, and the solvent that is taken into consideration for playing this role is generally restricted to ethanol water combinations, or simply water or ethanol.
Protein-based coatings which include the use of casein, gluten and soy protein serve as good oxygen blockers and thus help preserve the food products from any deteriorative reactions. Proteins are reported to impart good mechanical properties and gas barrier properties.
2.4 Corn zein-based films and coatings
Corn is a major source of zein which is a prolamin protein that can be dissolved in 70–80% ethanol and hydrophobic in nature. Edible coating made from zein shows very good film properties. They are good moisture blockers than other films.
2.5 Gelatin-based coatings and films
Gelatin is a hydrophobic protein usually found in wheat which is also a globular protein and also used in some edible coatings/films due to its low cost and availability. Gelatin coatings usually depict good transparency, mechanical and barrier properties and can be manufactured via an extrusion or casting process. The nature of the gluten has significant impact on its filming properties.
2.6 Lipid-based coatings and films
Lipids are naturally hydrophobic in nature making them very good materials to be used in edible coating since they can help resolve moisture migration into the fresh food product which can cause some significant deteriorative changes in the food material. Some example of lipids used in edible coatings include wax and paraffin [14].
3. Methods of application of edible coating/films
3.1 Dipping
This technique is the oldest commercial technique but still relevant until now. The concept of dipping technique is by immersing the fresh food produce into the coating solution to allow complete wetting of the surface of the food material. After that the coating solution is drained out to remove excess coating from the food surface. Finally the fruit is dried to form a well intact coating with the food surface. This can be applied to a wide range of viscous coating solutions.
3.2 Layer by layer method
Layer by layer method is based on alternate deposition of oppositely charged polyelectrolytes that result in a more effective control of the coating properties and functionality. This method leads to the production of several layers of the films which can help to improve the effectiveness of the edible coating.
3.3 Vacuum impregnation technique
Vacuum impregnation technique is a further advancement of the dipping method. The difference is having a vacuum environment during fruit dipping. That is, instead of dipping the food material in a normal dipping tank, the fresh food is submerged in an airtight vacuum application. The food material is subjected to atmospheric restoration while it remains immersed in the coating solution under atmospheric pressure.
3.4 Spraying method
Spraying method is more suitable for less viscous coating solutions which can be sprayed at high pressure. Formation of polymeric coating using spraying system is affected by drying time and temperature. The advantage of applying the spraying technique is, the surface area of the liquid coating increase through the formation of droplets and distribution over the fruit surface.
3.5 Foaming and dripping method
Foaming and dripping method are considered as traditional methods in coating application. These methods are now gaining low popularity among researchers and industrial practitioners in fruit industries. With the dripping technique, the coating is being applied directly to the fruit surface using brushes However with the foam application, a foaming agent is added to the coating. Then, compressed air is blown into the air of applicator tank. Extensive tumbling action is applied to break the foam for uniform distribution.
4. Benefits of edible coatings/films
4.1 Moisture barrier
These films prevent moisture loss, aroma loss or water uptake by the food material or even penetration of oxygen which produces a good storability condition for these food products, Edible coating enhance the texture and improves the product appearance and prolong the shelf life by creating semi-permeable barriers. Emamifar and Bavaisi [15] developed a bio-nanocomposite coating with sodium alginate and nano-ZnO and applied it on strawberry. The results revealed a significant weight retention than those without the films. Again Titanium and silver nanocomposite packaging displayed same results on mangoes [16].
4.2 Oxygen scavengers
The presence of oxygen can have considerable detrimental effects on some packaged fresh food products. Some edible films have been found to contain some oxygen scavengers and humidity control systems which play an important role in reducing gases contributing to the spoilage of fruits and vegetables. Resende et al. [17] indicated that the coating of chitosan/cellulose nonofibril minimises the oxygen diffusion, decreases respiration and delays strawberry oxidation by ascorbic acid reaction.
4.3 Ethylene scavenger
Ethylene control in storage time plays a significant role in extending the shelf life of the fresh produce. Kaewklin et al. [18] determined the ethylene control activity of chitosan-TiO2 nanocomposites on tomato showed lower levels of ethylene concentration.
4.4 Antimicrobial properties
One of the main contamination reasons for fruit and vegetable is the lack of proper packaging. An antimicrobial active packaging system loaded with antimicrobial agents can be applied to minimise the spoilage of fresh produce to control their microbial growth. Some studies also proved this as strawberries coated with 1.5% sodium alginate and nano ZnO showed the lowest growth of micro-organisms. The Antimicrobials in the edible coatings enhance the shelf life and safety of fruits and vegetables by preventing microbial growth and damages [19]. Some of the antimicrobial substances include organic acids such as citric acid and lactic acid, Microbial bacteriocins like Lactic acid bacteria and some polypeptides such as lysozymes [20].
4.5 Antibrowning and antioxidant properties
Enzymatic browning in minimally-processed fruits and vegetables is linked to discoloration and discoloration of phenolic compounds catalysed by polyphenol oxidase (PPO) enzyme, which converts polyphenolic substrates to dark pigments in the presence of oxygen. Edible coating especially incorporated with antibrowning substances can control PPO activity, and in the other hand, can provide a strong barrier for oxygen. The antibrowning substances mostly used are ascorbic acid, thiol-containing compounds (cysteine and glutathione), carboxylic acids (citric and oxalic acid), phenolic acids and resorcinols. These reduce o-quinones resulted from the action of PPO enzymes, back to their phenolic substrates [21].
5. Texture modifiers for inhibition of physical damages
Pectolytic enzymes leads to the loss of firmness in fruit tissues and so any attempt to inhibit this enzyme’s activity will result in firmness retention. Application of edible coatings containing active substances called texture enhancers could minimise the textural softening of fruits and vegetables during storage. These compounds retard plygalacturonase activity and preserve structural integrity of membrane. To control softening phenomena in fresh-cut fruits calcium salts are commonly used and considered as firmness retainers.
6. Nutraceuticals for preservation of nutritional quality
Nutraceuticals enhance the nutritional profile of low-micronutrient products; Minerals, vitamins and bioactive compounds are potential Nutraceuticals compounds that can be incorporated in formulation of active coatings to enhance the nutritional value of some fruits and vegetables, where these micronutrients are present in low quantities [22].
7. Application of edible coating/films on some selected food products
7.1 Apple
Apple which is a Pome fruit has undergone various research studies which proves the effectiveness of edible coating in the preservation of this fruit. For instance a research finding by Guerreiro et al. [23] showed a significant reduction of microbial load on the food product and resulted in a prolonged shelf life.
7.2 Citrus
FAOSTAT [1] reported that citrus is one of the main crops in the world with a total production of 18.9 million tonnes in 2017. Similar to the other fresh produce, postharvest losses are the major problem in the citrus production chain. Arnon et al. [24] developed a by-layer polysaccharides-based edible coating for mandarins using CMC as the internal layer whiles the chitosan was used as the external layer. The result demonstrated that the quality of the citrus fruits such as the gradient of the glossiness and peel colour were evenly improved.
7.3 Mango
Mango which is also a drupe fruit along with cherries and peaches have shown some significant improvement in terms of its shelf life upon the addition of edible coating/film materials n it. Though Mango is most preferred due to its appealine organoleptic properties it has been shown to undergo rapid deterioration after harvest.
Paladines et al. [25] investigated the impact of roseship oil with aloe vera gel von deferring ripening and preserving the postharvest quality of a number of stone fruits. The results indicated that the aloe Vera coating inhibited the formation of ethylene, decreased the respiration rate and delayed the changes the fruit colour and firmness. Again studies using guar gum and ginseng extract on sweet cherry showed a significant delay in the production of malondialdehyde [26].
7.4 Berries
Berry fruits such as blackberry are commonly used in the human diet either fresh or in processed form. Berries are small fruits that contain high antioxidant benefits. Several studies have been on the integrity of edible nano-coatings of curcumin and limonene liposomes integrated with methyl cellulose and its impact on the quality of strawberries and this showed the coating was found to be effective in regulating fungal decay in strawberries [27].
7.5 Melon
Carvalho et al. [28] stated that most of the cultivated melons are eaten as value added particularly fruits, especially for fresh-cut products. Though these food products have been found to deteriorate quite easily due to various biochemical processes, a lot of research has proven the effectiveness of edible coating in inhibiting the deteriorative changes [29].
7.6 Tomatoes
Tomatoes are one of the most vulnerable food products in the world due to their delicate structure. This obviously makes storage of these food products quite difficult since they even undergo rapid deteriorative changes after harvesting. There have been some successful findings on the positive impact of edible coatings on the shelf life of Tomato (Table 1).
Impact of edible coating materials on food products.
Application of edible coatings have demonstrated a positive result in terms of improving the shelf life and preserving the quality of tropical fruit. Edible coatings have been added to pitaya [40], soursop [41], pineapple [42], papaya [43], banana [44], longan [45], and guava [46].
8. Conclusion
Edible coating is a very interesting field of study that could revolutionise the postharvest industry as we know it. These materials are biodegradable, eco-friendly and has less to no negative impact on the food product. There has been so many proven evidences on the positive impact of edible coatings and films on some food products.
\n',keywords:"postharvest technology, edible coating/films, water loss, shelf life",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/79752.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/79752.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79752",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79752",totalDownloads:181,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"September 26th 2021",dateReviewed:"October 19th 2021",datePrePublished:"December 22nd 2021",datePublished:"April 28th 2022",dateFinished:"December 22nd 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Postharvest losses are rampant due to lack of proper storage conditions and handling of the fresh food products. The perishable nature of fruits and vegetables makes their shelf life limited due to some extrinsic factors such as some environmental conditions and preservation conditions as well as some intrinsic factors such as respiration rate, ethylene production and transpiration. Among the other postharvest technologies available, edible coatings seems to be one novel method which has been verified to have a positive and safe approach to extending the shelf life of products. This type of packaging is made from various natural resources like polysaccharide, protein and lipid materials. Edible packaging materials can be divided into two main groups including edible coatings and edible films. It has so many benefits such as serving as a moisture barrier, oxygen scavenger, ethylene scavenger, antimicrobial properties among others. Different methods of application of the edible coating on the food materials include; dipping, spraying, brushing, layer by layer among others. There have been several verifications of the positive impact of edible coatings/films on pome fruits, Citrus fruits, Stone fruits, tropical and exotic fruits, berries, melon, tomatoes and others.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/79752",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/79752",signatures:"Kofi Owusu-Akyaw Oduro",book:{id:"10899",type:"book",title:"Postharvest Technology",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",fullTitle:"Postharvest Technology - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",slug:"postharvest-technology-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",publishedDate:"April 28th 2022",bookSignature:"Md Ahiduzzaman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10899.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83969-924-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-923-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-925-2",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"321606",title:"Dr.",name:"Md",middleName:null,surname:"Ahiduzzaman",slug:"md-ahiduzzaman",fullName:"Md Ahiduzzaman"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"421005",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Kofi",middleName:null,surname:"Owusu-Akyaw Oduro",fullName:"Kofi Owusu-Akyaw Oduro",slug:"kofi-owusu-akyaw-oduro",email:"okofi4915@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Classes of edible coating",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Coatings based on Polysaccahrides",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_3",title:"2.1.1 Starch",level:"3"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"2.1.2 Chitosan",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"2.1.3 Alginate",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"2.1.4 Gellan gum",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"2.2 Pullulan-based coatings",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"2.2.1 Cellulose",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"2.2.2 Carboxymethyl cellulose",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"2.2.3 Pectin",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"2.3 Protein-based coatings",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"2.4 Corn zein-based films and coatings",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"2.5 Gelatin-based coatings and films",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"2.6 Lipid-based coatings and films",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16",title:"3. Methods of application of edible coating/films",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"3.1 Dipping",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"3.2 Layer by layer method",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"3.3 Vacuum impregnation technique",level:"2"},{id:"sec_19_2",title:"3.4 Spraying method",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20_2",title:"3.5 Foaming and dripping method",level:"2"},{id:"sec_22",title:"4. Benefits of edible coatings/films",level:"1"},{id:"sec_22_2",title:"4.1 Moisture barrier",level:"2"},{id:"sec_23_2",title:"4.2 Oxygen scavengers",level:"2"},{id:"sec_24_2",title:"4.3 Ethylene scavenger",level:"2"},{id:"sec_25_2",title:"4.4 Antimicrobial properties",level:"2"},{id:"sec_26_2",title:"4.5 Antibrowning and antioxidant properties",level:"2"},{id:"sec_28",title:"5. Texture modifiers for inhibition of physical damages",level:"1"},{id:"sec_29",title:"6. Nutraceuticals for preservation of nutritional quality",level:"1"},{id:"sec_30",title:"7. Application of edible coating/films on some selected food products",level:"1"},{id:"sec_30_2",title:"7.1 Apple",level:"2"},{id:"sec_31_2",title:"7.2 Citrus",level:"2"},{id:"sec_32_2",title:"7.3 Mango",level:"2"},{id:"sec_33_2",title:"7.4 Berries",level:"2"},{id:"sec_34_2",title:"7.5 Melon",level:"2"},{id:"sec_35_2",title:"7.6 Tomatoes",level:"2"},{id:"sec_37",title:"8. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'FAOSTAT (2019). Food and agriculture organization corporate statistical database 2019. Available from: http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data (Accessed: August 2021)'},{id:"B2",body:'Alexandratos N, Bruinsma J. World agriculture towards 2030/2050: The 2012 Revision. Rome: FAO ESA working paper No 12-03; 2012'},{id:"B3",body:'Bilal Hassan, Shahzad Ali Shahid Chatha∗, Abdullah Ijaz Hussain, Khalid Mahmood Zia, Naseem Akhtar (2018a). Recent advances on polysaccharides, lipids and protein based edible films and coatings: A review. 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Effect of edible chitosan and cinnamon essential oil coatings on the shelf life of minimally processed pineapple (Smooth cayenne). Food Bioscience. 2021;41:67-86'},{id:"B23",body:'Guerreiro AC, Gago CML, Faleiro ML, Miguel MGC, Antunes MDC. The effect of edible coating on the nutrional quality of Bravo de Emolfe freshcut apple through shelf life. LWT-Food Science and Technology. 2017;75:210-219'},{id:"B24",body:'Arnon H, Granit R, Porat R, Poverenov E. Development of polysaccharides based edible coatings for citrus fruits: A layer-by-layer approach. Food Chemistry. 2015;166:465-472'},{id:"B25",body:'Paladines D, Valero D, Valverde JM, Díaz-Mula H, Serrano M, Martínez-Romero D. The addition of rosehip oil improves the beneficial effect of Aloe vera gel on delaying ripening and maintaining postharvest quality of several stone fruit. Postharvest Biology and Technology. 2014;92:23-28'},{id:"B26",body:'Rivaa SC, Oparaab UO, Fawole OA. Recent developments on postharvest application of edible coatings on stone fruit: A review. Scientia Horticulturae. 2020;262:45-56'},{id:"B27",body:'Nora SM, Dinga P. Trends and advances in edible biopolymer coating for tropical fruit: A review. Food Research International. 2020;134:109208'},{id:"B28",body:'Carvalho RL et al. Chitosan coating with trans-cinnamaldehyde improves structural Integrity and antioxidant metabolism of fresh-cut melon. Postharvest Biology and Technology. 2016;113:29-39'},{id:"B29",body:'Poverenov E, Danino S, Horev B, Granit R, Vinokur Y, Rodov V. Layer by-layer electrostatic deposition of edible coating on fresh cut melon model: Anticipated and unexpected effects of alginate-chitosan combination. Food and Bioprocess Technology. 2014;7:1424-1432'},{id:"B30",body:'Arroyo, B. J., Bezerra, A. C., Oliveira, L. L., Arroyo, S. J., Melo, E. A. de, & Santos, A. M. P. (2020). Antimicrobial active edible coating of alginate and chitosan add ZnO nanoparticles applied in guavas (Psidium guajava L.). Food Chemistry, 309, 125566'},{id:"B31",body:'Panahirad S, Dadpour M, Peighambardoust SH, Soltanzadeh M, Gullon B, Alirezalud K, et al. Applications of carboxymethyl cellulose and pectin-based active edible coatings in preservation of fruits and vegetables: A review. Trends in Food Science and Technology. 2021, 110;663:-673'},{id:"B32",body:'Perez AFT, TID A, FJI R. Conservation of minimally processed mango tommy atkins by applying an aloe vera (Aloe barbandensis miller) coating. Vitae. 2016;23:65-77'},{id:"B33",body:'Maan AA, Ahmed ZFR, Khan MKI, Riaz A, Nazir A. Alow vera gel, an excellent base material for edible films and coatings. Trends in Food Science and Technology. 2021;116:329-341'},{id:"B34",body:'Abebe Z, Tola YB, Mohammed A. Effects of edible coating materials and stages of maturity at harvest on storage life and quality of tomato (Lycopersicon Esculentum Mill.) fruits. African Journal of Agricultural Research. 2017;12:550-565'},{id:"B35",body:'Maringgala B, Norhashila Hashima D, Tawakkalb ISMA, Mohamed MTM. Recent advance in edible coating and its effect on fresh/fresh-cut fruits quality. Trends in Food Science and Technology. 2020;96:253-267'},{id:"B36",body:'Tesfay SZ, Magwaza LS, Mbili N, Mditshwa A. Carboxyl methylcellulose (CMC) containing moringa plant extracts as new postharvest organic edible coating for Avocado (Persea americana Mill.) fruit. Scientia Horticulturae. 2017;226:201-207'},{id:"B37",body:'Abu-Shama HS, Abou-Zaid FOF, El-Sayed EZ. Effect of using edible coatings on fruit quality of Barhi date cultivar. Scientia Horticulturae. 2020;265:109262'},{id:"B38",body:'Al-Tayyar NA, Youssef AM, Al-Hindi RR. Edible coatings and antimicrobial nanoemulsins for enhancing shelf life and reducing foodborne pathogens of fruit and vegetables: A review. Sustainable Materials and Technologies. 2020;26:45-50'},{id:"B39",body:'Velickova E, Winkelhausen E, Kuzmanova S, Alves VD, Moldão-Martins M. Impact of chitosan-beeswax edible coatings on the quality of fresh strawberries (Fragaria ananassa cv Camarosa) under commercial storage conditions. LWT - Food Science and Technology. 2013;52(2):80-92'},{id:"B40",body:'Fan P, Huber DJ, Su Z, Hu M, Gao Z, Li M, et al. Effect of postharvest spray of apple polyphenols on the quality of fresh-cut red pitaya fruit during shelf life. Food Chemistry. 2018;243:19-25'},{id:"B41",body:'Moreno-Hernández CL, Sáyago-Ayerdi SG, García-Galindo HS, Montes De Oca MM, Montalvo-González E. Effect of the application of 1-Methylcyclopropene and wax emulsions on proximate analysis and some antioxidants of soursop (Annona muricata L.). The Scientific World Journal. 2014;1-7:896853'},{id:"B42",body:'Azarakhsh N, Osman A, Ghazali HM, Tan CP, Adzahan NM. Lemongrass essential oil incorporated into alginate-based edible coating for shelf-life extension and quality retention of fresh-cut pineapple. Postharvest Biology and Technology. 2014;88:1-7'},{id:"B43",body:'Mendy TK, Misran A, Mahmud TMM, Ismail SI. Application of Aloe vera coating delays ripening and extend the shelf life of papaya fruit. Scientia Horticulturae. 2019;246:769-776'},{id:"B44",body:'Alali AA, Awad MA, Al-Qurashi AD, Mohamed SA. Postharvest gum Arabic and salicylic acid dipping affect quality and biochemical changes of ‘Grand Nain’ bananas during shelf life. Scientia Horticulturae. 2018;237:51-58'},{id:"B45",body:'Lin MG, Lasekan OL, Saari N, Khairunniza-Bejo S. The effect of the of edible coatings on or before ultraviolet treatment on postharvested longan fruits. Journal of Food Quality ID. 2017:5454263'},{id:"B46",body:'Silva WB, Silva GMC, Santana DB, Salvador AR, Medeiros DB, Belghith I. Chitosan delays ripening and ROS production in guava (Psidium guajava L.) fruit. Food Chemistry. 2018;242:232-238'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Kofi Owusu-Akyaw Oduro",address:"okofi4915@gmail.com",affiliation:'
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After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/158026/images/system/158026.jfif",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George\\'s Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various prestigious international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. 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